Chapter 1
ENGLISH LITERATURE BEFORE
GEOFFREY CHAUCER (450-1340)
1. Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1050)
The early English Literature is called the Anglo-Saxon period or the old
English period.
Poetry
The Jutes, Angles and Saxons, the three tribes of these ancestors, conqucred
Britian in the later half of the fifth entury. Their poetry is filled up with the
spirit of adventure, love of the sea, plunging boats and battles.
1. Beowulf—The is the first old English epic. It describes the great deeds
and death of Beowulf. This text is written in West Saxon dialect. Beowulf has
a great social interest, it describes the manners and customs of the forefathers
of the Englishmen before they came to England. W.H. Hudson remarks about
this work “Vivid Pictures of life in was and peace among our remote forefathers
add greatly to the value of a fine old poem.” According to Stopfod A. Brooke
“The whole poem, pagan as it is, is English to its very root. It is sacred to us,
our genesis, the book of our origin.”
2. Waldera—This poem consists about sixty three lines which describes
some of the exploits of Walter of Aguitaine.
3. Widsith—This poem consists about one hundred and fifty lines.
Anglo Saxon literature represents the poetry which the Anglo-Saxons
brought with them in the form of oral sagas. Anglo-Saxons were religious
people but with the advent of Christianity, a new spirit of ardent old poetry is
modified by the faith i.e., the fate in the Will of a good God. The latter poetry
developed under the teachings of monks who had behind them all the culture
and the literary resources of the Latin language. Northumbrai became the seat
of the monks who influenced the Anglo-Saxon liteature. This school is called
Northumbrain School. Caedmon and Cynewulf are the two famous school
of this poets.
1. Caedmon—He is the first one to make English verse. W.J. Long writes
about Caedmon’s importance, “If Beowulf and gragments of our earliest poetry
were brought into England, then the hymn, given above (from Caedmon’s
Paraphrase) is the first verse of all native English song that has come down to
us, and Caedmon is the first poet to whom we can give a definite name and
date. The words were written about 665 A.D.”
2. Cynewulf—His signed poems include. The Christ, Juliana, The Fates
of the Apostles and Elene. His unsigned poems are Andreas, The Phoenix,
The Dream of the Road. The Dream of the Road in the finest of all old English
religious poems.
3. Judith—He is one of famous Anglo-Saxon religions poets.
Anglo-Saxon Prose
1. King Alfred—It was king Alfred (A.D. 849-901) who drove back the
Danes from England, and began the writing of prose in Wesses. In this way he
is the creator of English prose. He rendered into English Pastoral care of Pope
Gregory, Orosius, The History of the World, Bede’s The Eccelsiastical History,
Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy and St. Augustine’s Soliloquies.
2. Wufstan—He was Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York. His
‘Address to the English’ narrates the general deamoralisation casued by the
invading Danes.
3. Aelfric—His prose works included the Catholic Homilies, two series
of Sermons and The Lives of Saints.
The Anglo-Norman Period (1066-1340)
William, the Duke of Normandy won the Anglo-Saxon England in the
battle of the Hsatings. The literature they brought to England is remarkable for
its bright, romantic tales of love and adventure. The Morman conquest brought
the Roman Civilization to England. This was the period of the formation of
English langauge. The following five main dialects of the Anglo-Saxon period
continued to develop (1) East Midlands dialects (2) The old Northumbrian
dialest (3) South-Western (4) South-Eastern or Kentish (5) South-Western or
West Saxon.
The East Midland dialect under the influence of French developed into
“the Received Standard English of Today.”
Anglo-Morman Prose
The ‘Ancern Rivle’ written in 12th century, is the most important of the
early prose texts of this period. It link with the prose of Wulfstan and The
Authorised version is clear.
Anglo-Norman Poetry
An unusual large number of verse chronicles is found during this period.
(a) Layamon—His work is Brut which was completed in 1205. It has
30,000 lines describing the history of England from the landing of Brutus to
the death of Cad Wallader.
(b) Robert—He belonged to Gloucester which was largely drawn on the
work of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other Chronicles.
(c) Robert Mannying—His famous works are Story of England and the
Manual of Sins.
body. This terrible Black Death carried off no less than one-third of the
population.
Q. 3. What do you know about the Lollard Movement.
Ans. John Wyclif and his followers called Lollards. They taught what
they believed to be the true Christianity, contending against the papal
viceregency of christ and accepting only these teaching of the church that found
sanction in the Bible.
Q. 4. What do you know about John Wycliff?
Ans. John Wycliff first translated the Bible. He was a popular teacher at
Oxford and Master of Balliol College, Oxford. He is popularly known as the
founder of English prose.
Q. 5. Tell us about chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’.
Ans. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of twenty four tales in verse and
prose, some incomplete, told as entertainment by a group of pilgrims riding
from London to the shrine of Thmas A Beckett at Canterbury in the spring of
1385 or 1387. There were twenty nine pilgrims including Chaucer. There are
two prose tales, Chaucer’s own Tale of Melibeus and The Parson’s Tale.
Q. 6. Tell us about Chaucer’s ‘Prologue’.
Ans. Chaucer’s ‘Prologue’ makes us acquainted with the various characters
of his drama. The twenty nine characters are carefully chosen who present
different sections of the society.
Q. 7. Tell us about the work of John Gower.
Ans. John Gower’s best known works are confessio Amantis and vox
Clamantis. Vox Clamantis is a dream allegory in which the poet symbolically
presents the Peasants Revolt of 1381.
Q. 8. Name some of the poets who have been influened by Geoffrey
Chaucer.
Ans. Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Drydn, John Keats, Alfred
Tennyson, A.C. Swinbure, Robert Bridges, Walter de La Mare and John
Masefield.
Q. 9. Tell us about Mandeville’s ‘The Voyage’ and ‘Travels of Sir
John Mandeville’?
Ans. The Voyaga and Travels of Sir John Mandeville were written by Sir
john Mandeville in French. He later translated latter it into English. This book
is remarkable for geography, topography, natural history and romance.
Q. 10. Who has called Chaucer ‘the earliest of the great modern’s?
Ans. E. Albert, the famous critic has called him ‘the earliest of the great
moderns’.
Q. 11. Who has called Chaucer ‘The Well of English Undefiled’?
Ans. Edmund Spenser has called Chaucer ‘the well of English undefiled’.
Q. 12. Tell us the principal metre used by Chaucer in his work ‘The
Prologue’ and ‘The Canterbury Tales’.
Ans. Chaucer has used ten-syllabic lines, arraged in stanzas of seven lines
each called Rhyma Royal.
Q. 13. What services did Geoffrey Chaucer render to the development
of English language in particular?
Ans. Geoffrey Chaucer made the English language independent of the
support of foreign languages. Before him Latin and Greek lanaguages were
supported to be the guide and guardian of the English language but Chaucer
proved that the English language could stand on its feet.
Q. 14. Tell us the chief characteristics of the poetry of Geoffrey
Chaucer.
Ans. Geoffrey Chaucer’s poetry is remarkable for its melody, music and
imagery, its humour and its realism, and its love of humanity and love of nature.
Q. 15. Tell us about Wycliffs Bible.
Ans. It is the first effort of rendering of the Holy Scripture into English. It
was translated from the Latin ‘Vulgate of Saint Jerome’. It is remarkable for its
prose style.
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The Age of Chaucer (1340-1400) 7. 8. A HAND BOOK OF VIVA-VOCE
Chapter 4
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE (1516-1558)
What is Renaissance
In England the age of Queen Elizabeth I is known as the age of
“Renaissance”. It is not easy to define the term “Renaissance”, which means
“Rebirth or the re-awakening”. The ‘renaissance was essentially an
European movement which had its birth in Italy and from there spread to
Germany, France and England.’ The renaissance marked the beginning
of the modern spirit. The light of renaissance dazzled the English horizon
in the 16th century. A number of factors accounted for the rebirth under
the regime of Elizabethan. The renaissance in England can be divided
into four periods :
1. The Period of Preparation (1500-1579)
2. The Elizabethan Period (1579-1603)
3. Jacobean Period (1603-25)
4. The Caroline Period (1625-50)
We find the following implications of the Renaissance in England.
(a) The end of Medieval Scholasticism—The Renaissance meant the
death of the medieval scholasticism which had for long been keeping human
thought in bondage. The scholars got themselves entangled in useless
controversies and tried to apply the principles of Aristotalean philosophy to
the doctrines of Christianity, and gave birth to a vast literature characterized
by pollemics and sophistry which did not advance men in anyway.
(b) The Reformation—It signalised the revolt against spiritual authority
of the Pope in Rome. The Reformation though not a part of the revival of
learning, yet was a companion movement in England. This Reformation and
of spiritual authority went hand in hand with that of intellectual authority.
Renaissance intellectuals distinguished themselves by their flagrant antiauthoritarianism.
Spenser presents the best example of Reformation in The
Faeire Queene.
(c) Beauty and Polish—The Renaissance implied a perception of greater
beauty and polish in the Greek and Latin scholars. This beauty and this polish
were sought by Renaissance men of letters to be incorporated in their native
literature.
(d) Humanism—The Risnaissance marked the change from the
Theocentric to the homocentric corruption of the universe. Human life,
persuades an even body came to be glorified G.H. Mair observes “Human life
which the medieval church had taught them (the people) to regard but as a
stepping stone to eternity, acquired suddenly a new momentousness and value.”
Poetry
1. Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) and Henry Howard, Earl of surrey
(1516-47), were really the first two modern poets. The book that contains their
poems is Songs and Sonnets, known as the Tottles Miscellany, which was
published in 1557.
Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the sonnet and then followed the Petrarchan
form having Octave of eight lines and Sestect of six lines and its ryhme scheme
was abba, abbba, cde, etc.
2. Henry Howard, the Earl of Surrey—He was the first English poet to
use blank verse in his translation of the two books of the Aeneid.
3. Thomas Sackville (1536-1608)—He is the author of two signficant
works, The Mirror of Magistrates and Induction. The Induction is written in
Chaucerian stanza and allegorical form of the Roman de la Rose.
Prose
The Educationists
1. Erasmus—He was a humanist whose His Praise of Folly, originally
written in Latin was translated into English.
2. Sir Thomas More (1418-1535)—More’s most famous work Utopia
(1516) was written in Latin but was translated afterwards into English. His
Utopia has been called “the first monument of modern socalism.” His Utopia
is the representative book of that short but well defined period which we may
call English Renaissance before the Reformation.
3. Roger Ascham (1515-68)—Ascham was a great scholar of Latin. He
was the tutor of Queen Elizabeth. His first work was ‘Taxophilus’ or the School
of Shooting (1545) and his second work was ‘The Schoolmaster’ (1570). He
was the first English writer who wrote “the English speech for the Englishmen.”
4. Sir Thomas Elyot (1490-1546)—He wrote Governor (1531), a treatise
on moral philosophy and education.
5. Sir John Cheke (1514-57)—His famous work is the Heart of Sedition
which is full of humanism and the influence of antiquity.
The Reformers
1. Sir John Tyndale (1484-1536)—In 1522 he began to translate the
New Testament into English. He was persecuted and put to death in 1536. His
traslation of the Bible was completed by his friend Miles Coverdale in 1535.
His translation is considered the base of The Authorised Version of the Bible.
2. Thomas Cranner—His famous work is The English Prayer Book.
3. Latimer—His famous work is Sermon on the Ploughers.
The Development of English Drama
1. Comedy—Nicola Udal’s Ralph Roster Doister (1553) is the first
comedy of the classical school. Grammar Gurtan’s Needle (1575) written
by an unknown writer is another comedy of the Classical style.
2. Tragedy—The first complete tragedy in English of the Senecan type is
Ferrex and Porrex, better known as Gorboduc (1562) which was written by
Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. The notable tragedies of this period
are Thomas Hughe’s The Misfortunes of Arthur (1588). Robert Wilmont’s
Tragedy of Tancred and Gismund (1567-68) and George Gascoeigne’s In
Jocasta (1566).
Tragi-comedies were also written during this period. Some memorable
plays of this type are Whetstone’s Right Excellent and Famous History,
Preston’s A Lamentable Tragedy, Richard Edward’s Damon and Pithias.
Along with the classical tragedy arose chronical historical plays. Early historical
plays were The Troublesome Reign of John, King of England (1590), Tragedy
of Richard the Third (1540-44), The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth (1588),
The Chronicle History of Lear (1594).
QUESTIONS
Q. 1. What do you mean by the term ‘Renaissance’?
Ans. The term ‘Renaissance means revival or rebirth. Renaissance means
revival of arts resulting from the rediscovery and imitation of classical models.
It was a movement which was the outcome of the people’s renewed interest in
ancient literature. The Renaissance brought with it a love of beauty and art, an
interest in human life and a materialistic outlook.
Q. 2. What were the factors responsible for the rise of Renaissance?
Ans. The main factors responsible for the rise of the Renaisance movement
were as follows—(i) New geographical discoveries, (ii) The fall of
constantinople, (iii) Humanism, (iv) Invention of the printing press by William
Caxton.
Q. 3. What is Humanism?
Ans. Humanism is the revival of liberal learning in the classic literature of
Greece and Rome. Humanism laid great force on the ancient Greek and Latin
models.
Q. 4. Who was Sir Thomas Wyatt?
Ans. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the sonnet into English.
Q. 5. Who was Sir Thomas More?
Ans. Sir Thomas More is known for his Utopia which is the earliest example
of the novel in the Renaisance period.
Q. 6. What do you know about Tottles Miscellany?
Ans. Tottle’s Miscellany is the first printed anthology of English lyrics,
which was published on June 5, 1557.
Q. 7. Who was Nicholas Udall?
Ans. Nicholas Udall was the headmaster of Eton and he wrote the first
regular comedy in the English language called Ralph Roister Doister.
Q. 8. Who was John Heywood?
Ans. John Heywood (1497-1580) is more famous as the author of England’s
best known dramatic interludes. Notable among them are A Mercy Play between
John, the Husband, Tyb the Wife and Sir John, the Priest. The play is scalled
the ‘Four PP’ and A Merry play between the Pardoner and the Fair.
Q. 9. Who was Thomas Sackville?
Ans. Thomas Sackville wrote the first English tragedy called Gorboduc.
Q. 10. What is the second comedy in English literature?
Ans. Gammer Gurton’s ‘Needle’ is the second comedy in English
literature.
Q. 11. What is blank verse? Who introduced it into English literature?
Ans. A Blank verse is unrhymed verse in iambic pentameter. It was first
used by Surrey in his translation of two books of the Aenied.
Q. 12. What was the direct influence of Italy on the poetry of early
Renaissance in England?
Ans. The new moment is poetry began at the thoroughly Italianised court
of Henry VIII. Sir Thomas Wyatt (1506-42) and Henry Howard, Earl of
Surrey (1516-47) brought Sonnet writing on the pattern of Petrarch from Italy.
Q. 13. How did Tattles Miscellany contribute to English literature?
Ans. Tattles’ Miscellany brought lyricism to English poetry and the
personal note to the poetry introduced by Sir Thomas Wyatt.
Q. 14. Which characters were more significant in the miracle Plays?
Ans. Devil and Vice are significant faces in the miracle plays. Vice was
the fun-maker and the forerunner of the clown of Elizabethan stage. He is seen
jumping on the back of the Devil.
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The Early Renaissance (1516-1558) 15. 16. A HAND BOOK OF VIVA-VOCE
Chapter 5
THE AGE OF SHAKESPEARE
OR
ELIZABETHAN AGE (1558-1625)
The Age of Shakespeare or Elizabeth is the period when the new movement
reached its climax and contributed to the extroardinary development of
literature.
W.H. Hudson remarks, “In the development of literature this revival of
learning worked in two ways, it did much to emancipate thought from the
bondage of medieval theology by restoring the generous spirit and ideals of
Pagan antiquity, and it presented writers with literary masterpieces which they
might take as models for their own efforts.”
1. The revival of Classical Learning—G.H. Mair observes, “The reading
of the ancients awakened new delight in the melody and beauty of language
man became intoxicated with words.” The Classical revival of learning
influenced the content, style and technique of literature. “The sonnet and the
blank verse are the imported metres which were used with artistic adroitness
and excellence in Elizabethan literature, various poetic genres, writes Legouis,
“in which the ancients and the moderns had won distinction, pastorals, epics,
comedies, tragedies, lyrics of every kind, every kind of prose romances,
criticism, history and philosophy were skilfully and successfully attempted.”
2. Influence of Humanism—W.H. Hudson observes “An appetite for
literature was thus fostered and an immense impetus was given to the sense of
beauty and everything that made for the enrichment of life.”
Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive.
To be young was very keaven!
The Hellenic view of life known as Humanism influenced literature
Humanism gave brith to individualism and worldlines. During the Elizabethan
period emphasis was laid on the qualities which distinguish human beings from
one another. The plays of Marlowe, the poetry of Spenser and the prose of
Bacon are the best expressions of individualism in the Shakespearean Age.
3. Renaissance and Reformation—W.H. Hudson writes, “While the
Renaissance aroused the intellect and the aesthetic faculties, the Reformation
awakened the spiritual nature, the same printing press which diffused the
knowledge of the Classics put the English Bible into the hands of the people,
and the spread of an interest in religion was inevitably accompanied by a
deepening of moral earnestness.”
Reformation was a religious movement arising out of the revolt of Martin
Luther against Pope’s supremacy. Renaissance and Reformation resulted in
the growth of a new spirit of nationalism and development of national languages.
Reformation encouraged the writing of theological prose, which influenced
the development of English prose. The Authorised Version of the Bible (1611)
influenced the development of English language and literature.
4. Spirit of Discovery and Adventure—New lands had been discovered
and new territories were opened up. Italy was the home of the Renaissance. It
was the brilliant centre of art and literature and journey to Italy was a craze
with the Elizabethans. The voyagers themselves wrote down the account of
their adventures, and two of these accounts proved very popular-that of
Hakliyt’s voyage and Discoveries and Purchase ‘Pilgrimage’s. The famous
critic G.H. Mair observes, “The voyagers are teh makers or our modern English
prose and some of its noblest passages.”
5. The Influence of Plato—Plato was one of those ancients, who inspired
Elizabethan England. The Platonic doctrine that divinely inspired the poets
was well-known even to the man in the street. According to Legouis, “This
high conception of poetry aided by the rising tide of patriotism swept England
onward to attempt all these geners in which the ancients and the moderns had
won distinction—pastoral, epics, comedies and tragedies, lyrics of everykind,
every kind of prose-romances, criticism, history and philosophy. The writers
of this period aimed at producing a literature that will surpass the literatures of
ancient Greece and Rome.”
Characteristics Of Poetry Of The Age of Skakespeare
Poetry was considered as a dignified and elevated form of literary
expression. Sir Philip Sidney says, “of all science is our poet the Monarch.”
Edmund Spenser proclaimed that heroes and famous poets are born together.
Spenser insisted that “Poetry is a divine gift and heavenly instinct not be gotten
by labour and learning, but adorned with both, and poured into the wit by a
certain enthusiasm and celestial inspiration.”
(1) Silver Poets of the 16th Century—Gerald Bullet refers to Sir Thomas
Wyatt, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Walter Raleigh
and John Davies as the Silver Poets of the 16th century, for their poetry is
charaterised by silver-tongued eloquence.
(2) Narrative Poetry—
(i) Samuel Daniel (1562-1619)—Daniel has to his credit a sonnet series
called Delia (1592) a romance called The Complaint of Rosamond (1592), a
long historical poem The Civil Wars (1595) and a large number of masques of
which The Queenes Wake (1610) and Hymen’s Triumph (1615) are important.
(ii) Michael Drayton (1563-1631)—He wrote a number of long historical
poems which included England’s Heroical Epistles and The Baron’s Wars. His
Poly-olbion is a long careful and tedious description of the geographical features
of England.
(iii) Edmund Spenser (1553-1559)—Edmund Spenser is a typical
representative of this age. His poetry combines the best of both the Renaissance
Reformation. He is rightly called “the poets’ poet” because all great poets—
Milton, Donne, Dryden, Pope, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, The
Pre-Raphaelites and many other—are indebted to him. Spenser also has been
called the poet of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
His work Amoretti, is a collection of eighty-eight Petrarchan sonnets, which
describe the progess of his love for Elizabeth Boyle. His ‘The Shepherd’s
Calendar (1579) is modelled on the artifical pastoral popularised The Tears of
the Muses, The Fate of the Butterfly. His most autobiographical poem is Collin
Clouts Come Home Again. His Epithalamion (1595) shows happily the sensuous
sweetness and the rapture of love. It is a marriage hymn. His Prothalamion is
his another marriage hymn. Astrophel (1596) are written in honour of love and
beauty. His The Faerie Queene is the finest and the most important of this
works. The Faerie Queene appeared in instalments. The first three books were
published in 1589-90 and the second three books appeared in 1596. Two cantos
and two odd stanzas of Book VII appeared in 1609 posthumously.
The symbolical representations of the books are given below.
Book I The Legend of the Knight of Redcross. —Holiness
Book II The Legned of Sir Guyon —Temperance
Book III The Legend of Britomatis —Chastity
Book IV The Legend of Cambel and Triamod —Freindship
Book V The Lenend of Artegall —Justice
Book VI The Legend of Sir Calidore —Courtesy
Edmund Spenser introduced Spenserian stanza, which has been admired
by countless crities and imitaled by all poets since its introduction. It is his
most remarkable contribution. Spenserian stanza is nine-line stanza rhyming
ab ab bcb cc, the last line being what is called an Alexandrine, or line of six
iambic feet, instead of five.
Edmund Spenser is the ‘poets’ poet’ and the ‘second father of English
poetry’ because it was he, and not Chaucer, who gave to the poets not only of
his own age but of all ages, a high and noble conception of their calling.
(4) William, Shakespeare (1564-1616)—He has composed one hundred
and fifty four sonnets in English. He has also composed narrative poems Venus
and Adonis (1593) and The Rape of Lucrece (1594).
(5) Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)—His notable poem is Hero and
Leander.
(6) Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86)—His sonnet sequence is entitled
Astrophel and Stella in (1594), It marks the real beginning of Elizabethan
sonnet.
Minor Poets
1. William Browne (1591-1643)—His famous work is Britannia’s
Pastorals.
2. Giles Fletcher (1588-1623)—His famous poem is Christ’s Victory and
Triumph.
3. Phineas Fletcher (1582-1650)—His masterpiece is Piscatorie Eclogues.
Prose in the Age of Shakespeare (1560-1625)
The essay was started in France by Montaigne. The Oxford English
Dictionary defines the essay on “a composition of moderate length on any
particular subject, or branch of a subject, originally inplying want of finish” an
irregular, indigested piece. According to Dr. Samuel Johnson, “An essay is a
loose sally of mind, indigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance.”
(1) Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)—Bacon, who has been called the
father of English essay, published ten essays in the year 1597. He had written
fifty eight essays by 1625. Alexander Pope has written about Bacon—
“If part allure three, think, how Bacon shined,
The wisest, the brightest and the meanest of mankind.”
(2) Ben Jonson (1573-1637)—He was a great dramatist and poet, who
wrote appropriate essays entitled ‘The Timber of Discoveries’.
(3) John Selden (1584-1654)—His famous collection of essays are Table
Talk (1689), The Titles of Honour (1614), History of Tithes (1618).
Religious Prose
The Authorised Version of Bible appeared in 1611 which was the work of
47 scholars, nominated by James I, over whom Bishop Lancelot Andrews
prescribed, Richard Hooker’s (1554-1600) famous religious book is The Laws
of Ecclesiastical Polity.
Literary Critical Essays
The notable collection of literary critical essays are Stephen Gosson’s
The school of Abuse (1579), William Webb’s Discourse of English Poetry
(1586) George Rutenham’s Art of Poesie (1589) and Sidney’s Defence of
Poesie (published posthumously in 1595).
Other Essayists
The other notable essayists of this period are Robert Burton (1576-1640)
(The Anatomy of Melancholy) (1621), Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), (The Holy
War and Profane State), Joseph Hall (1574-1656) (Virtues and Vices), George
Herbert (1593-1633) A Priest to the Temple on A Country Parson.
Drama in The Age of Shakespearem (1568-1625)
(1) The University Wits
1. John Lyly (1554-1606)—A Most Excellent Comedy of alexander and
campaspe and Diogenes (1584), Sapho and Phao (1584), Gallathea (1588),
The Man in the Moon (1588), Midas (1589), Mother Bombie (1590), Love’s
Metamorphosis (1590), The Woman in the Moon (1597).
2. George Peele (1557-1597)—The Assignment of Paris (1581), the Battle
of Alcazar (1594), The Famous Chroncile of King Edward I, The Love of
King David and Fair Bethsabe and The Old Wives Tales (1595).
3. Robert Greene (1558-1592)—The Comical History of Alphonses, King
of Aragon (1587), The Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
(1589), The Scottish History of James the IV (1591).
4. Thomas Lodge (1558-1625)—The Wounds of Civil War.
5. Thomas Nash (1558-1625)—Dido, The Isle of Dogs.
6. Thomas Kyd (1558-1694)—The Spanish Tragedy.
7. Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)—Tamburlaine, Edward II, The
Jew of Malta, The Tragedy of Dido, The Queen of Carthage, The Massacre of
Paris.
(2) William Shakespeare
(i) The First Period (1588-96)—Titus Andronicus, Henry VI Part I, Love’s
Labour’s Lost, The Comedy of Errors, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, A
Midsummer Night’s Dream.
(ii) The Second Period (1596-1600)—The Merchant of Venice, The
Taming of the Shrew, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing,
As You Like It, The Twelfth Night, Henry IV, Part I & II, Henry V.
(iii) The Third Period (1601-08)—Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Othello,
Julius Caesar, All’s Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and
Cressida.
(iv) The Fourth Period (1608-1613)—Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus,
Timon of Athens, Henry VIII, Pericles, Cymbeline, The Tempest, The
Winter’s Tale.
Post : Shakespeare an Drama (1625-42)
1. Ben Jonson (1573-1637)—His famous plays are The Case is Altered
(1598), Every Man In His Humours (1598), The Cynthia’s Revels (1600), The
Poetaster (1600), Everyman Out of His Humour (1599), Volpone or the Fox
(1605), Epicone or the silent woman (1609). The Alchemist (1610), The
Bartholomen fair, The Devil is An Ass (1616), The Staple of New (1625), The
New Inn or the Light Heart (1629), The Magnetic Lady of Humour Reconciled
(1632), A Tale of a Tub (1633). He also wrote masques. His best known masques
are The Satyr, The Penates, Masques of Blackness, Masque of Beauty, The
Masque of Queens.
2. John Webster (1575-1624)—The White Devil and The Duchess of
Malfi are his two tragedies.
3. Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and John Fletcher (1579-1625) Their
typical comedies are A King and No King (1611), The Knight of the Burning
Pestle (1607), The Scomful Lady (1613-16), The Maid’s Tragedy (1610)
Philaster (1611), The Faithful Sherpherdess.
4. George Chapman (1559-1634)—His famous plays are The Blind
Beggar of Alexanderia (1596), Bussy’d Ambois (1604), Charles Duke of Byron
(1608), The Tragedy of Chabot (1613). His two comedies are All Fools Day
(1605), Eastward Hoe ! (1605)
5. Thomas Middleton (1570-1627)—A Mad Word, My Masters, A Chaste
Maid in Cheapside, Changeling (1624), Women Beware Women (1622), The
Witch.
6. Thomas Heywood (1575-1650)—A Woman killed with Kindness
(1603), The Loyal King and The Loyal Subject (1602), King Edward the Fourth
(1597-99) The Captive (1624), The English Traveller (1633).
7. Thomas Dekker (1572-1632)—Shoe Maker’s Holiday (1599).
8. John Marston (1575-1634)—And Cyril tourneur (1575-1626).
Marston’s famous tragedies are Antonio and Mellida (1599), Antonio’s
Revenge (1602), Tourneur wrote The Revenge’s Tragedy (1600), The Atheist
is Tragedy (1607-11).
9. Philip Massinger, Massinger’s memorable plays are : A New Way to
Pay Old Debts, ‘The Great Duke of florence, The Virgin Martyr, The Maid of
Honour.
QUESTIONS
Q. 1. What do you know about Shakespeare as a Sonneteer?
Ans. Shakespeare has written one hundred and fifty four sonnets in English.
The sonnets of Shakespeare were published in 1609. shakespearean sonnet
has three stanzas of four lines and in the end a couplet. Its rhyme scheme is ab
ab, cd cd, ef, ef, gg.
Q. 2. Why has the Elizabethan Age been called the age of singing
birds?
Ans. Elizabethan age was full of writers of songs and lyrics. Many other
forms of verse were attempted such as the epic romance,
Q. 3. Name some of the important song writers of the age of Elizabeth.
Ans. The important song writers of the age of Elizabeth are—Christopher
Marlowe, Drayton, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Edward Spenser.
Q. 4. What are the chief features of the age of Elizabeth?
Ans. The chief features of the age of Elizabeth are spontancity, lyricism,
spirit of adventure, love pageantry, unsatiated delight in beauty, roaring
imagination and a pervading patriotism.
Q. 5. Name some important historical events of the age of Elizabeth.
Ans. The influence of the Renaissance gave rise to humanism and
ultimately to Reformation. It went a long way to improve the system of
education. It provided the contemporary men of letters with a Renaissance of
wonder, a background which made them look at the world all anew, the Brave
New World.
Q. 7. What is the plan of ‘Shepherd’s Calender’?
Ans. Shepherd’s Calender is divided into twelve parts, one for each month
of the year Edmund Spencser writes on his unfortunate love for a certain
mysterious Rosalind. The Shephard’s Calender is a pastoral poem of artificial
kind.
Q. 8. Who called Edmund Spenser ‘the poets’ poet’?
Ans. Charles Lamb called Edmund Spenser the poets’ poet.
Q. 9. What is the plan of ‘Faerie Queene’?
Ans. Edmund Spenser explains the plan of the ‘Faerie Queene’ in a
prefatory letter to his friend Sir Walter Raligh. The plan called for a twelve
day feast held by Glouana, Queen of Fairyland, on each of these days a certain
knight at her command undertook a particular adventure. Spenser projected
twelve books but only six were published during his lifetime and portions of
the seventh were published after his death.
Q. 10. What is the theme of the ‘Faerie Queene’?
Ans. The main aim of the Faerie Queene, says Spenser, is to fashion a
gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline. The Book is an
allegory and can be treated on different levels. The plan called for a twelve
day feast held by the Queen of Fairyland.
Q. 11. What is the political and historical significance of Spenser’s
‘The Faerie Queene’?
Ans. At the political level the main theme of Spenser’s The Faerie Queene
is the glorification of Queen Elizabeth and the State. Edmund Spenser followes
the contmporary practice of flattering the Queen.
Q. 12. What is a Spenserian Stanza?
Ans. spenserian stanza is a nine line stanza rhyming ab ab bc bcc. The last
time is called Alexanderine. It is a line of six iambic feet instead of five.
Q. 13. What are the demerits of Spenser’s poetry?
Ans. The chief demerits of Spenser’s poetry are lack of humour, want of
dramatic constructive power, and deficiency in realism. Spenser shows an
excessive flattery of the Queen. His diction is archaic and is sometimes cloying.
Q. 14. What is the plan of Amoretti?
Ans. Amoretti has a group of eighty eight sonnets describing the progress
of the poet’s love for Elizabeth Boyle whom he married in 1594.
Q. 15. What do you know of Spenser’s Epithalamion?
Ans. Epithalamion is the finest of Edmund Spenser’s smaller poems. It is
the noblest wedding poem in the language written on the marriage of Spenser
to Elizabeth Boyle.
Q. 16. Name the collections in which Sir Philip Sidney’s sonnets are
found.
Ans. The soonets by Sir Philip Sidney are collected in Astrophel and
Stella inspired by the daughter of Lord Essex.
Q. 17. Who are called the University Wits?
Ans. John Lyly, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene, George Peele and
Christonpher Marlowe are called University Wits.
Q. 18. What are the important dramas of John Lyly?
Ans. The important dramas of John Lyly are—The Woman in the Moon,
Alexander and Campaspe, Sapho and Phao.
Q. 19. What are the important plays of Christopher Marlowe?
Ans. The important plays of christopher Marlowe are—Tamburlaine the
Great, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus. The Jew of Malta, Edward II
and The Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage.
Q. 20. What do you know about Old Wives Tale?
Ans. Old Wives Tale is written by George Peele. This play is full of framatic
irony and its diction is realistic.
Q. 21. Tell us the imprtance of Christopher Marlowe’s Edward II.
Ans. Edward II is the first Elizabethan drama, which paved the way for
the historical plays of Shakespeare.
Q. 22. What do you mean by ‘Marlowe’s Mighty Line’?
Ans. About Christopher Marlowe’s blank verse, Ben Jonson coined the
phrase ‘Marlowe’s Mighty Line’.
Q. 23. Can you justify the statement, ‘No Marlowe, No Shakespeare?
Ans. William Shakespeare borrowed blank verse and the conception of
tragedy from Christopher Marlowe and became what he could not have become.
Q. 24. What are the main characteristics of Shakespeare’s Comedies?
Ans. The Comedies of Shakespeare are a peculiar blend of realism and
romance, of tragedy and comedy. They are full of music and song, fools and
clowns, love and humour. They are in fact tragi-comedies rather than pure
comedies.
Q. 25. What is Shakespeare’s Conception of Tragedy?
Ans. A Shakespearean tragedy represents a tale of suffering and calamity,
ultimately leading to the death of the hero. The tragedy arises out of a particular
flaw in the character of the hero, which is called ‘fatal flaw’. In this way the
hero falls because he has some marked imperfection or defect.
Q. 26. What do you mean by Alexanderine?
Ans. Alexanderine is an Iambic line of twelve syllables.
Q. 27. Name some poets who used the Spenserian stanza?
Ans. P.B. Shelley, John Keats, and Lord Alfred Tennyson are such poets.
Q. 28. What did Arnold mean when he said that ‘others abide our
question but Shakespeare is free’?
Ans. By this statement, Mathew Arnold means that Shakespeare is beyond
the marks of interrogation and Arnold wants to emphasize Shakespeare’s
universality. Ben Jonson also commented, “Shakespeare was not of an age but
of all ages.”
Q. 29. Ruskin has commented that Shakespeare has no heroes but
only heroines? Do you agree?
Ans. This statement is true about his comedies. The tragic heroes of
Shakespeare are great and noble and far more impressive, if a comparison is
made at all.
Q. 30. Name the important dramatists of the Post-Shakespearean
period.
Ans. The important post-Shakespearean dramatists are—Champan,
Marston, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, Thomas Middleton, Francis
Beaumont, John Fletcher, Cyril Tourneur and John Webster.
Q. 31. What were the reasons responsible for the decline of drama
during the Jacobean period or during the post Shakespearean period?
Ans. The reasons for the decline of drama during the post-Shakespearean
period—are loss of national appeal, exhaustion of creative spirit, the Puritan
opposition and moral decline.
Q. 32. What do you know about Ben Jonson’s Theory of Drama?
Ans. Ben Jonson forced on following the three Unities, viz. Unity of Time,
Unity of Place, Unity of Action. He based his drams on the medieval theory of
humours.
Q. 33. What do you know about Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia?
Ans. Sir Philip Sidney wrote ‘Arcadia’ a pastoral romance for the purpose
of amusing his friends.
Q. 34. Name some important prose writers of the Elizabethan Age?
Ans. The important prose writers of the Elizabethan Age are Elyot, George
Cavendish, Cheke, Sir Thomas Wilson and Roger Ascham.
Q. 35. What do you know about John Lyly as a writer of Prose?
Ans. As a prose writer John Lyly has written two works, Euphuers and
His England.
Q. 36. What do you know about Sir Philip Sidney’s book ‘An Apology
for Poetry’?
Ans. In this book Sir Philip Sidney goes on to defend poetry against the
charges brought against it by various critics, the most important of them is that
a poet is a liar. At this charge Sir Philip Sidney says that the poet is not a liar
for Sir Sidney is full of virtue breeding delightfulness.
Q. 37. What Sir Philip Sidney has to say about Stephen Gesson’s attack
on poetry?
Ans. Sir Philip Sidney’s Aplogie for Poetrie was compiled as an answer
to Stephen Gosson’s attack that poet is liar. Sir Philip Sidney has defended
poetry with some really important and significant practical criticism.
Q. 38. Name some Elizabethan Critics.
Ans. The famous elizabethan critics are—Sir Thomas Elyot, Stephen
Gosson, Thomas Sidney and Ben Jonson.
Q. 39. Name the last plays of Shakespeare.
Ans. Shakespeares last plays are Cymbeline, The Tempest, The Winter’s
Tale, Pericles, and Henry VIII.
Q. 40. What is Comedy of Manners?
Ans. The Comedy of Manners was originated in France. Moleire said that
the matter of true comedy must be correction of social absurdities. The
amusement arises mostly from the portrayal of current fortess or minor abuses.
Ben Jonson is the real founder of the Comedy of Manners because he give a
heightened picture of sixteenth century society.
Q. 41. What are the important Characteristics of Euphism?
Ans. (1) There are many classical allusions, mostly from Roman and Greek
allusions.
(2) There are a number of rhetorical devices such as alliteration and
antithesis. There is excessive use of antithesis in which the opposite idea is
emphasised by balance of sharply contrasting words, sentences or clauses.
Q. 42. What is the difference between Comedy of Manners and
Comedy of Humours?
Ans. A Comedy of Humours presents the oddities and idiosyncracies of a
character. On the other hand, a Comedy of Manners, represents the vices of the
society and exposes the hypocracies and shames of the individuals.
Q. 43. Which are the other writers of romance besides John Lyly and
Sir Philip Sidney?
Ans. Thomas Lodge and Green are other important writers of romance
besides Sidney and Lyly.
Q 44. What were the forms of prose in the age of Shakespeare?
Ans. In the age of Shakespeare, there were dramas, prose romances, literary
criticism, essays and history.
Q. 45. Why is Francis Bacon called ‘the wisest, the brightest and the
meanest of mankind’?
Ans. Francis Bacom was the wisest of mankind because he had written
his essays full of wisdom. He was the brightest because he was an innovator of
the prose style. Bacon was also charged with taking bribes and practising corrupt
dealings. For this reason he was called the meanest of mankind.
!
The Age of Shakespeare (1558-1625) 27. 28. A HAND BOOK OF VIVA-VOCE
Chapter 6
THE AGE OF MILTON OR THE AGE OF
PURITANISM (1625-1660)
Cheif Characteristics of the Age
(1) Rise of Puritan Movement—According to W.J. Long, “The Puritan
movement may be regarded a second and greater Renaissance, a rebirth of the
moral nature of man following the intellectual awakening of Europe in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centureis.” The Puritan movement was the greatest
movement for moral and political reform. Its aims were (i) religious libertry
i.e. that men should be free to worship according to their conscience. (ii) civil
liberty i.e., they should enjoy full civil liberty. The Puritans wanted to make
men honest and free.
Though the spirit of the Puritan movement was profoundly religious, the
Puritans were not a religious sect, neither was the Puritan a narrow minded nor
a gloomy dogmatist. The influence of Puritanism upon English life and literature
was profound. Puritanism sought to confine human culture within the
circumscribed field of its own particular interests. Puritanism created confusion
in literature. Sombrencess and pensivencess pervades poetry of this period.
W.J. Long observes, “Poetry took new and stratling forms in Donne and
Herbert, and prose became as sombre as of Burton’s The Anatomy of
Melancholy. The spiritual gloom which sooner or later fosters upon all writers
of this age, and which is unjustly attributed to Puritan influence, is due to the
breaking up of accepted standards in religion and government. This so called
gloomy Age produced some minor poems of exquistie workmanship and a
great master of verse, whose work would glorify any age or people—John
Milton, in whom the indomitable Puritan spirit finds its noblest expression.”
(2) The Metaphysical School—R.G. Cox rightly observes that the main
agents of change and the dominant moudlers of the new tradition are john
Donne and Ben Jonson and of the two, Donne’s originality is by far the more
spectacular. One aspect of Donne’s originality, in fact, is that he gave to the
short lyric something of the flexibility, the urgent and profound expressiveness
that came to be developed in dramatic blank verse. John Donne’s poetry is
remarkable for its fusion of passionate feeling and logical argument. John Donne
is the greatest of the religious poets of the century and following his example,
the metaphysical style is used for religious poetry by such poets as George
Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Richard Crashaw and many others.
Characteristics of the Metaphysical Poetry
Metaphysical poetry began early in the Jacobean Age i.e. in the last stage
of the Age of Shakespare. John Donne was the leader and founder of the
metaphysical shool of poetry. He led he new way of writing poetry as a reaction
against the conventional poetry of the spenearians. It was Dr. Johnson who
christened Donne and his followers, “The metaphysical poets”. This title was
brrowed by Dr. Johnson from Dryden’s famous phrase, “Donne affects the
metaphysical, not only in his satires but in his amorous verses.”
Dr. Johnson condemned this school of poets, because of the habit, common
to this school of poets, of always seeking to express something after, something
behind the simple obvious first sense of a subject. They were affected by the
ingenuity, the subtlety and what Johnson calls the “Watch for novelty,” which
distinguished Donne for instance, from the staightforward sentiment and lucid
imagery of the Elizabethans. The following are the main characteristics of the
metaphysical poetry of this Age.
(1) Display of Learning—The metaphysical poets were men of learning
and to show their learning was their chief object. In metaphysical poetry we
come across obscure references and the vast learning is twisted in such a manner
that it becomes very difficult for a reader to follow what the poet really intends
to say.
(2) Intellecutal Poetry—Metaphysical poetry was purely intellectual and
leaves a modern appeal to the intellectual. The thoughts of the metaphysical
poets are often new, but seldom natural. They saw beneath the surface of life
and illuminated the deeper places with reading, flashes, and devoting their
intellect and imagination to reflection upon god and their relation to him. They
produced what is by no means common in our literature, great religious poetry.
For religious poetry of such intensity and spiritual insight as this group of
poets wrote, we can turn only to such isolated poets as Francis Thomson and
Alice Meynell. (W.H. Hudson)
(3) Far fetched Images—Metaphysical poets saw acute resemblances in
things apparently unlike. They introduced far fetched images which could not
be easily understood by the reader. Their constant aim was to produce something
and for this purpose they introduced images of an extraordinary character which
could not be understood easily.
(4) Wit and Conceit—Donne was the great metaphysical poet who taught
his followers to indulge in conceits and witticism in poetry. The metaphysical
conceits arose from intellectual process of thinking figures conceit is an
instrument by which a metaphysical poet reveals his wit. We can easily present
some of the conceits of metaphysical poetry from Donne’s poetry. In the poem,
“Autumnall Donne compares Mrs. Herbert’s wrinkles to love’s graves, for
love sits there like an anchorite in a trench. He is of opinion that love is not
there digging grave but building dome because when she dies love will die
consequently. Again his poem “The Sunne Rising” is full of metaphysical
conceits. In his poem “Twicknam Gardan”, the lover’s tears are the wine of
love which is very strange. He invites the lovers to come with phials and collect
his tears. In the “Song,” he employs fantastic conceit”.
Ride ten thousand daies and nights,
Till-age snow which haries on thee.”
(5) The Mystical and Religious Note—Most of the metaphysical poets
are often called Mystical poets. In the poetry of Donne, Herbert, Crashaw,
Vaughan and Traherne, there is an expression of a communion with God. These
mystic poets have sense of unity of all life. They believe that the spiritual is
alone, the real word and the things of this world are mere shadow. There mystic
vision pierces through the shadows of the world and interprets them as symbols.
Donne’s religious poetry has all the qualities we have detailed above.
Hebert followed Donne in most respects. He has been called ‘the saint of
the metaphysical school’. This approach to God and Christ is full of what
Edmund Gosse calls, “Intimate tenderness”. Herbert has two distinguished
followers Vaughan and Crashaw. They acknowledged their debt to Herbert,
but they had tempers fundamentally their own. Vaughan is temperamentally a
mystic though he uses conceits after the manner of Donne and Herbert Crashaw
was the only Roman Catholic among the metaphysical poets.
(6) Diction and Versification—In style and language, Donne and his
followers reacted against the sweetness and harmony of the School of Spenser.
The metaphysicals daliberately avoided conventional poetic expressions as
they had lost their meaning through overuse. The metaphysicals employed
very prosaic words as if they were scientists or shopkeepers. The result is that
in their work we often stumble against unpoetic words, we seldom expect in
serious prety. The versification of metaphysical is also like their diction coarse
and jerky as contrasted to the honeyed smoothness of Elizabethan poetry. Their
revolt, according to Grieron, is due to two motives.
(1) Their desire is startle.
(2) Their desire to approximate poetic to direct, unconventional colloquial
speech.
Decay of Drama—In this period drama decayed. The civil desturbances
and the strong opposition of the Puritans was the main cause of the collapse of
the drama. The closing of the theatres in 1642 gave a final Jolt to the
development of drama.
Poetry in the Age of John Milton (1608-1674)
John Milton—Paradise Lost (1667), Paradise Regained (1671), Samson
Agonistes (1671), L’ Allergro, IL Penseroso, ‘His Lycidas’ is a monody on the
death of Edward king, Milton’s college friend. His famous masque was comus.
His famous sonnets are His Deceased wife, To a Nightingale, The Massacre in
Piedmont, On His Blindness. His prose work is of Education and Aeropagitica.
Metaphysical Poets
(1) John Donee (1537-1631)—His best known poems are : A Nocturnal
upon St. Lucie’s Day, A Valedictin : Forbidding Mourning, The Extasie, A
Hymn to Got the Father, Of The Progress of the Soul.
(2) George Herbert (1593-1633)—The Temple (1633).
(3) Richard Crawshaw (1613-1649)—Steps to the Temple (1646).
(4) Henry Vaughan (1622-1695)—His book include Poems (1646), Olor
Iscanus (1651), Silex Scintillans (1650), Thalia Radiviva (1678).
(5) Thomas Carew (1544-1639)—Carew’s Poems (1641).
(6) Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)—He wrote an epical romance Pyramus
and Thisbe (1628), Constantia and Philatus. His well known poems are the
Mistress (1647), The Davidies (1656), The Pindaric Odes.
(7) Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)—Garden, Upon the Hill, The Gallery,
To His Coy Misterss, Cromwell’s Return from Ireland.
Cavalier Poets
(i) Robert Herrick (1594-1674)—He has written two volumes of poems
‘The Noble Numbers (1647), Hesperides (1648), To Anthena, To Julia and
Cherry Pipe are his best known shorter poems.
(ii) Richard Lovelace (1618-1658)—Lucasta (1649), To Althea from
Prison To Lucasta, Going to the Wars.
(iii) Sir John Suckling (1609-1642)—Ballad upon a wedding, ‘Why so
Pale and Wan, Fond Lover.
Other Important Poets
(i) Edmund Waller (1606-1687)—The Bud, Go Lovely Rose, On A
Girdle.
(ii) Denham (1615-1669)—Copper is Hill (1642) Windsor Forest.
Prose Writings
(1) Religious Prose—Jermy Taylor (1613-67) wrote the Liberty of
Prophesying (1647), Holy Living (1650), Holy Dying (1651).
(2) Thomas Fuller (1608-61) has written the following religious books
prose : the History of the Holy war (1639), The Church History of Britain
(1655), His Pamphlets include Good Thoughts in Bad Times (1645), An Alarm
to the countries of England and Wales (1660), The Worthiers of England.
The Essay Writing
(1) Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)—Of Myself.
(2) Owen Felltham (1602-1668)—Resolves : Divine, Moral, Political.
(3) William Drummond (1585-1649)—A Cypress Grave.
(4) Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1609-1674)—Contemplation and
Reflections upon the Psalms of David and Essays : Divine and Moral.
(5) Games Howell (1594-1666)—Epestolae Hoe.
(6) Lord Halifax (1633-1695)—The character of A Trimmer, Advice to
a Daughter, The Lady’s New Years, Gift or Advance, To A Daughter.
(7) William Temple (1628-1699)—Memoirs (1691) Miscellanea.
(8) Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)—Religio Medici (1635),
Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors (1646), Hydrotaphia or Um Burial
(1658), The Garden of Cyrus (1658), Christian Morals.
QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Who were Puritans?
Ans. The Puritans were against excess of sensuality and Renaissance
pastine such as theatre and dramatic performances. The true descendent of
Wyclif and Lolards were greatly influenced by famous John Calvin of Geneve.
These dissentients were hostile to episcopal form of government.
Q. 2. What was the chief historical event of the Age of Milton?
Ans. There was the civil war which was decidedly the most important
phenomenon of the age.
Q. 3. What do you know about Cavaliers?
Ans. The Cavaliers represented the sect opposite to the Puritans. The
Cavaliers were related to the court and they led a happy and gay life.
Q. 4. Name the important Metaphysical poets?
Ans. The important Metaphysical poets are John Donne, George Herbert,
Henry Vaughan, Cowley and Crashaw.
Q. 5. What are the chief characteristics of the Metaphysical poetry?
Ans. The chief characteristics of the Metaphysical poetry are (1) Display
of learning (2) Far-fetched Images (3) Use of Conceits (4) Dominance of fancy
rather than imagination.
Q. 6. What do you know about L’ Allegro and II Penseroso written
by John Milton?
Ans. L’ Allegro and II Penseroso are idyllic poems by John Milton. They
have charming contrasted pictures of man and nature. In both these poems
there is little that is characteristically Puritan because the poet deals upon the
pleasures of romance and rustic life upon the play house and the Greek drama
and upon the beauty of church architecture and music.
Q. 7. Which are the two epics written by John Milton?
Ans. John Milton wrote two epics in English literature, which are Paradise
Lost and Paradise Regained.
Q. 8. What do you know of Lycidas?
Ans. Lycidas is a monody on the death of Milton’s college friend, Edward
King.
Q. 9. What is the theme of ‘Paradise Lost’?
Ans. Paradise Lost is an epic written by John Milton which depicts the
fall of man. Its theme is to justify the ways of God to Man. This epic shows us
how man’s first disobdience brought sin and death in its train. The fall of the
rebel angels, the creation of the world and man, the temptation of Adam and
Eve and their expusion from the garden of Eden.
Q. 10. What the famous critic T.S. Eliot has to say about the poet
John Donne?
Ans. T.S. Eliot says that John Donne yokes oppostie image and qualities
together. This is a tribute to Donne’s poetical genius.
Q. 11. Please tell us about John Donne as a love poet.
Ans. John Donne is far more impressive and interesting as a love poet
than as a religious poet. Passion, feeling and sensuality are all combined in his
love poetry. He is more often than not cynical and sceptical even in his love
poems. but this very cynicism and scepticism makes him all the more interesting
to the modern reader of poetry.
Q. 12. What do you know about the sonnets of John Milton?
Ans. The best known sonnets of John Milton are ‘On His Blindness’, ‘On
the Late Massacre in Piedmont’, When the Assault was intended on the city.
John Milton has written all these sonnets on the pattern of Petrarchan model.
Q. 13. What does S.T. Coleridge mean when he says that John Milton
is in every line of ‘Paradise Lost’?
Ans. When S.T. Coleridge said that John Milton is in every line of ‘Paradise
Lost’, he meant that the poem is thoroughly autobiographical.
Q. 14. Who commented that Milton was of the Devil’s party without
knowing it? And what did he mean by it?
Ans. This statement of William blake means that John Milton sympathised
Satan rather than Adam. But this is incorrect.
Q. 15. What do you know about John Milton as a writer of prose?
Ans. John Milton’s famous prose work is ‘Aeropagitica’. This work is
one of the greatest prose works of English. The prose style of John Milton is
characterized by scholarship, gravity, seriousness, eloquence and
persuasivencess. John Milton wrote chiefly rhetorical prose. is sentences are
much too long and are based on the Latin periodic structure.
Q. 16. What do you understand by the title Religion Media?
Ans. This title means the religion of a medical man. Sir Thomas Browne
was a medical practitioner of Norwich.
Q. 17. What do the modern critics say about John Milton?
Ans. Tow Modern critics T.S. Eliot, and F.R. Leavis have commented on
John Milton. T.S. Eliot has commented “Milton invites attention only to the
ear, and that he lacks in visual imaginary, that he uses proper names for their
own sake and for their musical values.”
Q. 18. What are the chief defects of John Milton’s poetry?
Ans. John Milton is sometimes over scholastic and seems to parade his
knowledge of the classics, the Bible and the mytholgoy. He also lacks a sense
of humour.
Q. 19. What is a masque? Tell us about comus as a masque?
Ans. Masque is a kind of drama brought into England from Italy. A masque
has songs, dances and elaborate costumes. Comus is a masque and its story is
a simple story of a lady lost in the woods. The lady is lured in the woods by
Comus and his hand of revellers and rescued by her brother. The poem is
allegorical in the sense that virtue is attached by sensuality and is conquered
by deemed aid.
Q. 20. Name important Caroline Prose Writers.
Ans. Important Caroline Prose Writers are Jeremy Talyor, Richard Baxter,
Thomas Fuller, Sir Thomas Browne, Izaak Walton.
Q. 21. What are the chief characteristics of francis Bacon as an
essayist?
Ans. All the Bacon’s essays are whether in an aphoristic style. Bacon has
filled the sea in the nutshell. All of them are full of practical wisdom and
epigrammatic brevity.
Q. 22. What do you know about Richard Baxter as a writer of prose?
Ans. Richard Baxter’s the best known work is Saint’ Everlasting Rest.
Q. 23. What is the important prose work of Izaak Walton?
Ans. The important prose work of Izaak Walton is ‘The Complete Anger’.
This book reflects the author’s philosphical personality and it is full of anecdotes
and poems, borrowed and adapted.
Q. 24. What are the chief characteristics of Sir Tomas Browne as a
writer of prose?
Ans. The prose of Sir Thomas Browne is marked by musical cadence a
certain sublimity and a deep personal note that takes the reader into confidence
almost immediately. The style of Sir Thomas Browne was imitated by De
Quincey, Charles Lamb and John Ruskin.
Chapter 7
THE RESTORATION PERIOD (1660-1700)
OR
THE AGE OF DRYDEN
Characteristics of the Age
(1) The Restoration (1660)—The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660
brought about a revolutionary chage in life and literature. Charles II, was
surrounded by corrupt and degenerate courtiers. The Great Fire of 1665 and
the Plague that followed were popularly regarded as suitable punishments for
the sin of the profligate and selfish king.
(2) The Popish Plot—As Charles II had no legitimate child and heir, it
was certian that his brother James, a Catholie, would succeed to the throne.
Therefore, attemtps were made to exclude him from the throne and to supplant
him by the Duke of Monmouth, the favourite, though illegitimate, son of Charles
II. This controversy directly led to the so-called Popish Plot sowrn to by Tilus
Oates.
(3) The Revolution (1688)—James II ascended the throne in 1685. He
became unpopular within three years and the nation as a whole rose against
him. The bloodless revolution of 1688 called the Protestant William and Mary
of Orange to the throne.
Literary Tendencies
(i) Rise of Neo-Classicism—Moody and Lovett observe “This sense of
present fact, this identification of the real and the material, as distinguished
from the transcedentalism of Renaissance and Puritan thought is the chief
characteristic of the mood of the century which succeeded the Restoration....
Rules of etiquette and social conventions were established and the problems
of life became that of self-expansion within the narrow bounds which were
thus prescribed.” Rules and literary conventions became more important than
the depth and seriousness of subject matter to writers of the period.
(ii) Lmitation of the Ancients—
“Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem,
To copy nature is to copy them.”
The authors of this period copied the Latin writers for guidance and
inspiration. They directed their attention to the slavish imitation of rules and
ignored the imp(iii) The Influence of the French—The influence of France counted for
much as Charles II had spent most of his time of exile in France. When Charles
II and his conmpanions returned to England, they criticized old poetic tradition
and demanded that poetry and drama should follow the style to which they had
become accustomed in the gaiety of Paris. English writers imitated the French
blindly. The influence of French comedy is seen in the coarseness and indecency
of Restoration. Comedy of Manners of Dryden, Wycherly and Congreve. The
comblined influence of French and Classical models of tragedy is seen in the
new genre, the heroic tragedy.
The French influence is also responsible for the growth and popularity fo
opera Germy collier in 1698 vigorously attacked the immorality and indecency
of the evil plays and the playwrights of the day.
(iv) An Age of Prose and Reason—Arnold says that the Restoration
marks the real moment of birth of our modern English prose. In Dryden’s Age,
English prose begins definitely to find its fect, and a prose style is gradually
evolved which is admirably suited to the miscellaneous needs of everyday life.
The critical temper of the age, the growth of science and religious and political
controversies all fostered the rise of prose.
(v) Realism and Formalism—There was a reaction against the excess
and extravagances of both the Elizabethan and the ‘metaphysicals’ headed by
John Donne. Emphasis was laid on a correct adherence to the rules of the
ancients as interpreted by the French. This tendency is admirally summed up
by Pope in his famous couplet.
“Those rules of old iscovered not devised
Are nature still but nature Methodised.”
W.G. Long observes, “The early Restoration writers sought to paint
realistic picture of corrupt court and society, and, as we have suggested, they
emphasized vices rather than virtues and gave us coarse, low play without
interest or moral signficance. Like Hobbes they saw only the externals of man,
his body and appetities, not his soul and his ideals, and so like most realists,
they resemble a man lost in the woods, who wanders aimlessly around in circles,
seeing the confusing trees but never the whole, forest, and who seldom thinks
of climbing the nearest high hill to get his bearings.”
It is largely due to Dryden that “Writers developed formalism of styles
that precise, almost mathematical elegance, miscalled Classicism, which ruled
the English literature for the next century.”
(vi) Rise of satire and the Heroic Couplet—The best poetry of the era is
satirical. Dryden’s ‘Absalon and Achitophel’ is an excellent example of
political satire his ‘Mac Flecknoe’ that of personal satirer. Another significant
contribution of the Age is growth and perfection of the Heroic Couplet.
Poetry is the Restoration Period
1. John Dryden (1631-1700)—Heroic Stanzas (1659), a series of heoric
stanzas on the death of Cromwell. His Astraea Redux (1660), a peom is
celebration of Charles II’s return. Annus Mirabilies (1667), Absalom and
Achitophel (1681), Mac Fleckone (1682). This is a scathing personal attack
on a former friend, Thomas Shadwell. In the second part of Absalom and
Achitophed (1682), Dryden contibuted a violent attack on Shadwell giving
him the name of Og. Religio Laici (1682), The Hind and the Panther, The
Fables (1699), Song for St. Cecilia is Day (1687), On alexander’s Feast (1697).
2. Samuel Butler (1612-1680)—His Hudibras is a pointed satire on
Puritans. The other poets of this age are John Oldham’s who has written three
satires—satire Against Virtue, satire upon a woman, satire upon Jesuits. Bishop
Ken’s Moming and Evening Hymns is a new type of religious poetry.
Prose in The Restoration Period
1. John Dryden (1631-1700)—Dryden’s well known Essay on Dramatic
Poetry is the model of the new prose.
2. John Bunyan (1632-1704)—Grace Abounding, The Pilgrim’s Progress,
The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), The Holy War (1682).
3. Lord Halifax (1633-1695)—His small volume called Miscellanies
contains a number of political traits.
4. Sir William Temple (1628-1699)—Memoris (1691), Miscellanea.
5. Thomas Hobbes—Leviathan (1651).
6. Sir John Locke (1632-1704)—Essay concerning the Human
Understanding.
7. The Diarists—Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) and John Evelyn (1620-
1706) are two famous diarists of this period.
Restoration Drama
A. Restoration Tagedy
1. John Dryden (1631-1700)—Tyrannic Love or the Royal Martyr (1669),
Conquest of Granada (1670), All for Love (1667), The Indian Emperor,
Aurengzeb.
All for Love which is subtitled as The world Well Lost heralded the
emergence of the new sentimental tragedy on the she tragedy. It is called she
tragedy because in it the central figure is a womna.
2. Thomas Otway (1651-1685)—Alcibiades (1675), Don Carlos (1676),
the Orphan (1680), Venice Preserv’d (1682).
3. Nathaniel Lee (1653-1692)—Nero (1674), Sophioisha (1676), The
Rival Queens (1677), Methridates (1678).ortance of subject matter.
The other dramatists are Elkanoah Settle (1648-1724) who has written
the Empress of Morocco (1674), John Crowne (1640-1703). His well known
tragedy is Caligula (1698) and Thyestes. Nicholas Rowe (1674-1718). His
best known plays are Tamerlane (1702), The Fair Pemtent (1703) and John
Shore (1714).
Germy Collier reacted against the Restoration Comedy by his pamphlet.
‘A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage’ (1698).
He attacked the dramatists of the Restoration period, including Dryden,
Wycherley and Congreve.
B. Restoration Comdey of Manners
1. William Congreve (1670-1729)—The Old Bachelor (1693), The
Double Dealer (1693), Love for Love (1695), The Mourning Bride (1697),
The Way of the World (1700).
2. George Etheregee (1635-1691)—The Comical Revenge or Love in a
Tub (1664), She won’t if She Cou’d (1668), The Man of the Mode or Sir
Fopling Flutter (1676).
2. Sir John Van Brugh (1644-1726)—The Relapse (1696), The Provoked
Wife (1697), and Confederacy (1705).
4. George Farquhar (1678-1707)—Love and a Bottle, The Constant
Couple, Sir Harry Wildair, The Inconstant (1703), The Way to Win Him, The
Recruiting Officer (1706), The Beaux’s Stratagem (1707).
QUESTIONS
Q. 1. What do you understand by the term Restoration?
Ans. The term Restoration means the restoration of monarchy after the
execution of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of England,
Scotland and Ireland. Charles II was called back to restore the monarchy. In
this way this age is called ‘Restoration’.
Q. 2. When did Charles II return to the throne of England?
Ans. Charles II returned to the throne of England in 1660.
Q. 3. What do you understand by the statement that the Restoration
Age saw the birth of the new classicism?
Ans. The Restoration literary scene is characterized by a revival of the
classics. The Restoration writers looked to the Latin poets and dramatists for
inspiration. They developed their rules based on their study of the Classics
New classicism was evolved during the Restoration age.
Q. 4. Why was John Dryden called the representative of the
Restoration period (1660-1700)?
Ans. John Dryden was the representative of the Restoration period. His
poetry presents all the qualities of this age. As the restoration period saw the
rise of the new prose. So also it saw the real beginning of modern criticism and
Dryden the first great prose writer and also the great critic.
Q. 5. What are the chief characteristics of the Restoration Age?
Ans. The Restoration Age was a result of the reaction against the Puritan
check. The French influence in brought by the King and popularised by the
court. The Political scene is dominated by the conflict between the Whigs and
the Tories. The most important feature of the Restoration age was the foundation
of the Royal society in 1662.
Q. 6. What were the circumstances responsible for the popularity of
the Satire?
Ans. Restoration period was a period of bitter personal and political
contention, of easy morals and subdued enthusiasm of sharp wit and acute
discrimination. Condemning became common in the society of this age and
this habit went a long way to encourage the satirical writings.
Q. 7. What are the important prose works of John Dryden?
Ans. John Dryden’s important prose works are the Essay of Dramatic
Poetry (1667) and the Preface to the Fables, and Essay of Heroic plays (1672).
Q. 8. What are the important poetic works of John Dryden?
Ans. The important poetic works of John Dryden are Astrea Redux (1660),
Annus Mirabilies (1667), Absalom and Achitophel (1681), Religio Laici (1682),
The Hind and the Panther (1667).
Q. 9. What is the theme of Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poetry?
Ans. John Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poetry is a dialogue among four
persons who discuss whether the ancients were superior to the moderns. The
main purpose of the essay is to support the use of rhyme in drama and establish
the superiority of the English stage over the French.
Q. 10. What is the theme of Mac Flecknoe?
Ans. In this poem ‘Mac Flecknoe’, Dryden satirizes Thomas Shadwell.
Q. 11. Name the satires of John Oldham?
Ans. John Oldham has written two satirical works, Satire Against Virtues
and Satire Against Jesuits.
Q. 12. What are the chief demerits of the poetry of Dryden?
Ans. Dryden lacks higher flights of imagination and the real creative force.
His poetry does not suggest and has no overtones or undertones.
Q. 13. What is Matthew Arnold’s opinion about Dryden as a poet?
Ans. Matthew Arnold considers him to be a classic of prose and not a
classic of poetry. His poetry has all the qualities of a good prose.
Q. 15. What does Hazlitt have to say about Drydn as a poet?
Ans. Hazlitt commented that Dryden is the greatest of the artificial clan of
poets.
Q. 16. In which year Theatres were closed in England?
Ans. The Puritans succeeded to persuade the Parliament to close the
theatres and they were closed in 1642.
Q. 17. In which year the Threatres opened again?
Ans. The theatres opened again with the Restoration of Monarchy in 1660.
Q. 18. What are the chief characteristics of the ‘heroic tragedy’ of
the Restoration Age?
Ans. The chief characteristics of the ‘heroic tragedy’ of the Restoration
Age are—(i) generally written in the heroic metre rather than in the usual blank
verse, (ii) their characters are usually super-human, (iii) their scenes are laid in
distant lands such as Peru or Egypt, and (iv) their subject is the theme of love
and honour.
Q. 19. Name some important Heroic Tragedies by Dryden.
Ans. The important heroic tragedies by Dryden are The Indian Emperor,
Conquest fo Granada, Aureng-zeb, All For Above.
Q. 20. What were the important writers of heroic tragedy during the
Restoration Age?
Ans. The important writers of heroic tragedy during the Restoration Age
are Robert Boyal, Lee, Otway, Thomas Sontherne, Rowe, Crowne, Settle
and John Dryden.
Q. 21. What do you understand by the term ‘Comedy of Manners’?
Ans. Comedy of Manners means the type of Comedy which treats of the
surface, the behaviour mostly artificial of a particular period or society. The
chief characteristics of the Comedy of Manners are brilliant dialogues, wit,
humour, polished style.
Q. 22. Name some of the important writers of the Comedy of Manners
during the Restoration age?
Ans. The important writers of the Comedy of Manners during the
Restoration Age are William Congreve, Wycherley, Sir George Etherege,
Sir John Vanbrugh, George Farquhar and Thomas Shadwell.
Q. 23. Who has been called the founder of the Restoration Comedy of
Manners?
Ans. William Wycherley has been called the founder of the Restoration
Comedy of Manners. His best known plays are The Country Wife and The
Plain Dealer.
Q. 24. Name some important prose writers of the Restoration period.
Ans. The important prose writers of the Restoration period are Dryden,
Rymer, Collier, Sir William Temple, Halifax, Thomas Sprat and Tellotson.
The Restoration Period (1660-1700) 41. 42. A HAND BOOK OF VIVA-VOCE
There are also fiction writers like Mrs. Behn and John Bunyan and two best
known diarists Pepys and Evelyn.
Q. 25. Name some important plays of Congreve.
Ans. The important comedies of Congreve are ‘The Way of World’ and
‘Double Dealer’. His other two plays are the ‘Old Bachelor’ and ‘Love for
Love’.
Q. 26. What is your opinion about John Dryden as the father of
modern English Criticism?
Ans. John Dryden has been regarded as the father of modern English
criticism because it is with him that this branch of criticism started. Dryden is
the first critic, who introduced the comparative methods of criticism.
Q. 27. What is the famous remark of John Dryden about Geoffrey
Chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’?
Ans. John Dryden has commented “Here is God’s Plenty.”
Q. 28. What is the theme of John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress?
Ans. The Pilgrim’s Progress deals with the experiences of a true Christian.
Most of the characters of the novel are allegorical in nature.
Q. 29. What are the chief characteristics of Restoration Tragedy?
Ans. The Restoration Tragedy was equally artificial, its most popular form
was that of the Heroic Drama in which love, gallantry and courage were depicted
on a gigantic scale. Its main emhpasis was on valour, beauty and love. It was
written in a bomblastic style and was spectacular in production.
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